Effective Study Skills Are the Sole Foundation of a Sound Essay

Compelling examination aptitudes are unquestionably a significant factor of sound training. They don’t occur without any forethought. They â€Å"evolve and develop through training, experimentation, criticism from others and reflection through various phases of the course† (Cottrell,S.2008. pg1) Working on powerful investigation aptitudes implies the individual will discover what works best. Essentially â€Å"learning how to learn† (Cottrell,S. 2008. pg 48). There are a wide range of manners by which people learn, for example ‘conscious learning’ †when the individual knows they are learning (Cottrell,S. 2008. pg 48). ‘Unconscious learning’ †when the individual is unconscious that it is occurring however it might become cognizant realizing when they simply know something and afterward wonder, how could I realize that (Cottrell,S. 2008. pg 48). Every individual has 3 distinctive learning styles which influence their lives. A few people learn better utilizing visual learning, for example, taking a gander at pictures or outlines. Others are sound-related students for example tuning in to chronicles. At that point there are individuals who are kinaesthetic or material students, they like to contact and play with things. (Wyman,P. 2011). By testing every one of these sorts of learning individuals will perceive what they discover simplest to utilize and afterward have the option to adjust it to their investig ations. Viable investigation aptitudes could be portrayed as the sole establishment of sound instruction while doing free learning. A student would get information independently, along these lines great investigation abilities are essential (Meena. 2012). This becomes effective on a separation adapting course for example foot wellbeing recognition. Having the decision of when and where considering happens, implies being taught enough to commit the opportunity to it. Basically the individual is instructing themselves. To truly prevail in a picked subject accomplishing something with veritable energy is most significant in any case people could simply lose intrigue.

Leadership assignment II Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Administration II - Assignment Example Steve occupations is additionally a pioneer that wherein all positions of authority are shared among the workers, without the participation of each and everybody of the representatives it is exceptionally difficult for him to succeed. A case of a popularity based pioneer is the present US president Barrack Obama. Alongside the nations delegates the world over, Obama is classified under the vote based pioneer type. He empowers dynamic from all headings to meet the desires for his residents with alternate points of view and characters. He is a persuasive and Inspirational pioneer who depends on his gathering to assist him with succeeding and meet the desires that his residents have. Imprint Zuckerberg is a genuine case of despotic pioneer. As the designer and fellow benefactor of facebook, he is a despotic pioneer since he settles on his own choices and can make sense of what is best for the organization without the assistance, direction and influences of others. He is likewise required to settle on significant choices rapidly as they may extraordinarily influence or impact the achievement of the organization. His representatives and clients rely upon him to settle on the best decisions for the organization and

Sample Essay Utility of self-help books in psychology

Sample Essay Utility of self-help books in psychology Sample Essay: Utility of self-help books in psychology Many people develop themselves during their whole life. It is a necessity for them, a natural life process. For some, the incentive for self-improvement are ambitious goals, for others the motivating reason is the desire to penetrate the secrets of the subconscious and to learn about the hidden potential of their mind, the psyche, as well as the desire to overcome the limitations of the physical world. For yet others, the practice of self-improvement is the only way to heal themselves from severe illnesses and to cast away the bad habits, fears and complexes. Anyway, such self-improvement always requires the objective attitude towards oneself, ones positive and negative traits. However, the most essential is the presence of the self-help books as a way to gather the missing information and as the guidelines for action. From the point of view of psychology, self-help books are the literature related to psychological phenomena and focused on finding and solving the problems by the pers on on ones own. There are different methods of addressing this kind of treatment as it can be both guided by the psychology professional or not. However, in any case, the usefulness of such books is still in question since there is no precise evidence that they are either beneficial or, conversely, harmful. In todays health care system of the developed countries, it is quite common to use the method of bibliotherapy. If a psychologist or a general practitioner sees that the patient has some fairly common psychological problem, such as stress, he or she can recommend to a patient of a particular self-help book from the approved list. Public libraries are commonly provided with the appropriate books in sufficient quantity. These books usually contain a theory that explains how to construct a variety of symptoms, a history of the clients who have overcome the symptoms by the means described in the book, as well as the written assignment for the reader. However, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages characteristic for this type of books. Like that, the most recent studies have shown that a fully independent work with self-help books can have virtually no effect in the cases of certain diseases, such as depression. Compared with the situation where a person works with a self-help book under the supervision of a specialist, whether the therapist or a group leader, reading such books in standalone mode practically does not give any positive results. One reason for this is probably that, while within the depression, it is difficult to do anything at all. This means that it is almost impossible to organize a strong-willed promise for independent work. Moreover, this conclusion is consistent with the idea that, in psychotherapy, therapeutic relationship not theoretical methods are predominantly the key to success. For this reason, it is highly believable that self-help books are not necessarily beneficial in any case, so read ing them must be matching with the diagnose and the specific patients condition. Still, it is necessary to recognize the fact that some of the disorders are better dealt with the help of the self-help books. Among them may be stress and general well-being or aggression. Also, there is a point of view that the efficacy of self-help books largely depends on the personal characteristics of a specific patient meaning ones propensity to trust the opinions of others, exposure to the authoritative influence etc. The next issue to be considered is the filling of the book. It is natural that a simple reading of the book does not change anything. The maximum positive effect of such simple reading is getting a certain emotional state, which though passes away rather quickly. In order to make changes, it is usually required to have a feedback that can only be given from the people around a person including a therapist, a coach, friends and relatives. The more professional and observant a person who gives such feedback is, the more useful the influence of self-help books will be. This way, it can not be said that reading such a book gives no benefits. On the contrary, it has several. First, it helps to determine the direction, in which a person wants to be changed. Second, it gives an opportunity to obtain the confirmation of thoughts and awareness of them, as well as, third, it involves a reader in a particular emotional state. For practice, however, the most useful are the books that are providi ng the illustrations of exercises. It provides the possibility to get a personal experience and to understand which method works for a particular individual. From this point of view, there is also a need in a person to observe carefully and communicate the results. This implies that, no matter how to look at the problem, there is most often a strong need of another person to give an impression from the outside. This implies the question of what is more useful, reading self-help books or consulting with a psychologist. Scientists opinions on the subject are divided. The reasons for this can be very diverse. For example, Pantalon calls the discrepancy in the different therapists understanding of a particular method as one of the main reasons for the ineffectiveness of self-help books, which “can have a very different impact on a client as compared with the impact of seeing a therapist”. In addition, there is a substantial basis for recognizing a different approach to each individual patient from the therapists. From this, it can be concluded that each book also has its own approach, which can act on one reader negatively while conceiving a positive effect on the other or having no influence at all on yet another. For this reason, it is impossible to say that one of the methods of treatment or improvement is clearly more effective than another. Each case requires a more detailed considerat ion and deeping into a specific problem. Marx, Gyorky, Royalty and Stern conducted a study in order to identify the current trends concerning the use of self-help books in the modern psychotherapy practice. As it turned out, there are general characteristics that can describe the tendency of therapists to advise their patients of such a way of working with their psychological problems. The two most significant features were the sex of a therapist and the employment setting. As the researchers have found out, women therapists were more likely to advise bibliotherapy than men. At the same time, private practitioners are noted to recommend such books more often than academicians. In addition, another significant trend stands out that is worth paying attention to. It concerns the issue of what literature can be considered as a self-help book. Marx and others have found out that therapists willingly advised the literature that was familiar to them. Such literature could include the well-known authors in psychological practice su ch as Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Erich Fromm, and so on. However, they were quite negative about the popular books that had little practical experience and a lot of theorizing. The reason for this may be in the fact that such a literature, while being unreasonably popular among the population of the developed countries, became the motive for writing many of such books that do not carry any value by the authors in order to enrich themselves. Such books, of course do not benefit their readers. On the contrary, there is a possibility that they impose a risk of deepening the psychological problem. On this basis, in conclusion, it is necessary to note that self-help books can take many forms. In some cases, they can help, but in others they may apply harm to the human psyche that will be rather difficult to remove. For this reason, according to the results of the presented studies, it seems the most appropriate to use such a literature solely on the advice of a psychologist or a therapist. Even more effective is an option of self-improvement through such books under the constant guide of a professional psychologist. Of course, there is a concept of a person being more susceptible to the influence of books rather than personal impact of a therapist. For this reason, one should always take into account the state and the type of nature of each individual, which means the need for flexibility within the approach of appointment of self-help books.

The Education Of African Americans Essay - 867 Words

Historically black colleges and universities, otherwise known as HBCUs, have played an integral role in advancing the education of underprivileged black teenagers since their inception after the American Civil War. They have had students extremely well known in their fields today, such as billionaire entertainer Oprah Winfrey, the first African American Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, and civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr. Though their graduation rates tend to be around 1 in 3, they have produced a majority of successful African American professionals. For the continued advancement of African Americans, HBCUs are necessary for offering educational opportunities that their students had been historically denied and presently out of financial reach, while promoting strong family values and equality that may be lacking at traditional schools and displaying positive African American role models in their alumni and staff. HBCUs can at earliest be dated back to before the Civil War, when the majority of colleges wouldn’t admit African American students on the premise of their race alone These schools were created specifically for the education of African Americans due to the fact that while some states had educational facilities open to all in the North and West, most of the South had segregated systems that forbade the admittance of African Americans. In 1890, the Agricultural College Act was passed, requiring segregated states to create a separate land grantShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of African American Education1559 Words   |  7 Pagesthe quality of education received by people in the United States ( Gordon, 1990; Williams Land, 2006). The western curriculum serves the cultural interest of whites, who have their roots in the European countries. It does not favor the cultural interest of African Americans, but it would only make sense that African American people are educated on true A frican history. The African American quest for education has been discussed by many African scholars and the struggles that African communities faceRead MoreThe Education Of African American Children2063 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction Ever since the establishment of equal education in the United States, there has been a disparity in academic success between children of different races. The education of African American children has become a prime example of this. As discussed in the historical text, A Letter to My Nephew, which was written during the time of the civil rights movement in the 1950’s and 1960’s, African Americans were not given equal opportunities to succeed educationally and could do little toRead MoreAfrican American Professionals And Higher Education1142 Words   |  5 Pagesresearching, African-American professionals in higher education, I never realized that indeed there was truth in the obstacles, restrictions and biases in their way that must be overcome. In this research paper we will highlight and discuss some of the reasons that African- American professionals faces in higher education and some of the resources, that can be used to dismantle the indifferences. The progress ha s been slow in the academic arena for African-Americans in higher education. It has beingRead MoreAfrican American Students and Equal Education 786 Words   |  4 Pagescenturies African Americans have fought for equal rights, one of them being an opportunity for the chance to get an equal education. Many people believe that African Americans have an equal or better chance at getting an education than other students. This is not the case when in fact, it is actually harder for these three reasons: African American students tend to come from harsh, poverty stricken atmospheres. Shattered family lifestyles that make it difficult to pursue a higher education becauseRead MoreThe And Inferior Quality Of Education For African Americans858 Words   |  4 PagesEducation in America is a continually changing process that develops through centuries of history, social standards of the present, and goals for the future. The purposeful separation and inferior quality of education for African A mericans maintained the idea of white supremacy. The enduring struggle for equal African American education in this country developed under a large oak tree in Hampton Virginia (History, 2010). Mary Peake risked her freedom to direct an unlawful class for refugees to aidRead MoreAfrican American Males s Education1399 Words   |  6 PagesAfrican American males struggle every day to prove their worth in an educational setting. According to society these young men are when it comes to their peers. Early education or daycare is a child’s first educational learning experience outside the home. However, not all African American males have this experience. A handful of African American males miss the opportunity to experience the positive benefits of learning social and cognitive skills. As a result, the absence of the early educationRead MoreAfrican American Students And Special Education923 Words   |  4 PagesIn education, the main goal is for all students to receive an eq ual and optimal opportunity for success, which also includes students with special needs. To ensure this aim is reached, schools ought to have measures in place to establish students who necessitate special education services to achieve and progress in their schooling. Contradictory to this idea, nonetheless, learners are inaccurately referred for special education placement. The process begins to become questionable when it happensRead MoreAfrican American Parents With Special Education2782 Words   |  12 PagesDiscussion Because African American children represent a large percentage of students in special education programs, an understanding of their parents’ views on the special education process should be an integral aspect of professional preparation and professional practice (Harry, 2008). This review was conducted to understand the experiences and perceptions of African American parents who have children with disabilities and are receiving special education services. I have reviewed a total of thirteenRead MoreAfrican Americans On Education : Malcolm X On A Homemade Education1575 Words   |  7 Pages Views of African Americans on education: Malcolm X on a Homemade Education; W.E.B. Dubois in Education; and Oliver Crowell Cox in Education Okema Johnson Coppin State University IDST 499-401 Dr. Ray September 9, 2015 Education is an important aspect in the lives of many individuals. Education is often seen as a means to better oneself. With education, a whole new world can be opened up to individuals. For African Americans education is key to achieving a variety of things inRead MoreAfrican American Students From Special Education1485 Words   |  6 PagesThe study also implies that all African American students are less likely than their European American colleagues to be withdrawn from special education. These African American students may exhibit lower achievement gains while in special education, according to the U.S. Department of Education, 2004 (Banks, J. j., Hughes, M. S. 2013). In 2006, the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights reported that African American students represent 17.13% of the total public school population

Feminism And Gender And Ethnic Studies - 1172 Words

My Interpretation of Feminism Feminism has had a deep impact on me since I was infantile. Though she never mentioned it, my mother was an active feminist. I grew up playing with toys considered to belong to either sex. I was taught to be strong and to let my emotions out, and I was given freedom to make my own identity. This was my first experience of social feminism, followed years later by learning the definition of feminism and learning to also see discrimination politically and economically. To further my understanding of feminism, I am currently taking the class Introduction to Women’s Gender and Ethnic Studies. During the first unit, I studied more in-depth about different types of feminism, and the feminism waves throughout†¦show more content†¦I then resorted back to â€Å"girly† hobbies, such as arts and crafts or experimenting outfit styles. I still spend at least ten minutes each morning adorning my hair. As far as my initial views on feminism went, the only difference I saw between men and women were physique. I would soon learn what it meant to be a feminist. Later, in high school, I met my significant other. She grew up in a family of engaged feminists. One day she asked me whether I considered myself feminist. At this point, I had never thought much of it, so I said â€Å"No.† She taught me exactly what it meant to be feminist, not the man-hating, hateful person, but the caring, thoughtful person who stands up for equality amongst sexes, genders, and races. After that, I have always considered myself a feminist. Earlier this year I decided to take the Introduction to Women’s Gender and Ethnic studies class during my first semester of college. After studying the first unit of the class, I learned about different feminisms. I now know about liberal feminists, who â€Å"campaigned for equal rights of citizenship and for the end of discrimination,† (); socialist feminists, who â€Å"attributed women’s oppression to capitalism and focused on women’s economic exploitation,† (); and radical feminists, who â€Å"identified male power or patriarchy as the source of female subordination,† (). These forms of feminism developed new attitudes and goals throughout the different waves of feminism in the past two centuries.

Korean Players in Major League Baseball - 1588 Words

Even though Chan-Ho Park’s case proved that Korean players could compete in Major League Baseball, none of other Koreans successfully settled in U.S.A. after Park. Approximately after ten years, a similar case with Park’s debut came out with Shin-Soo Choo. Shin-Soo Choo, who did not make a debut in Korean Baseball Championship before debuting in Major League Baseball, made debut with Seattle Mariners on 21 April 2005. Choo dreamed about Major League Baseball, which led him into a Rookie contract with Seattle mariners after his graduation from high school in 2000. Therefore, he made up to Seattle Mariners’s Minor League and even up to Major League (â€Å"Choo Shin Soo†). Nonetheless, his debut in the Major League did not lead him into†¦show more content†¦He signed for $36 million over six seasons and an opt-out after five years if he has pitched 750 innings. According to his biography, he also had Tommy John surgery when he was in high school, wh ich raised an immediate red flag among the local reporters. There were too many what if’s and red flags associated with Ryu as he prepared for his first season in Major League Baseball to think that he can be an impact starting pitcher coming from Korea Baseball Championship (Wells). Despite the doubts over his ability, he was determined to prove everyone wrong and had grounds for confidence. In 2006, he made a historic debut as he was named both the leagues Rookie of the Year and MVP after posting an 18-6 record with a 2.23 ERA and 205 strikeouts. With an impressive performance, he garnered international recognition in 2008 as a member of South Koreas Olympic gold-medal winning team and in the 2009 World Baseball Classic (Rosenbaum). According to the scouting report of Baseball America, he just turned 22, but he already pitches like a veteran. Ryu has four averages to above-average pitches, includes an 86-93 mph fastball with late life that he can add and subtract from when needed, a slow curve (75 mph), a tighter slider and a changeup. Already extensively tested in international play, Ryus biggest asset is his feelShow MoreRelatedThe Asian Athlete : A Cultural Icon Of Chinese American Communities1708 Words   |  7 Pagesimage of the patriotic immigrant subject who asks little to nothing of the nation and praises the nation for the opportunities it presents (Joo, 2012). One example is found by Mayeda (1999) regarding Japanese pitcher Hideo Nomo’s first year in the major league (1995), as the American sports media viewed him conforming entirely to American beliefs and values. According to the author, Nomo embraced this perception by sacrificing personal comforts and remaining quiet to better help his team and teammatesRead MoreAmerican Baseball in the Korean War3283 Words   |  14 PagesAmerican Baseball: Serving in Korea, but Larger than the War The Korean War, ranging from 1950-1953, marked the end to a major era in the sporting world as it was the last time professional athletes were expected to fight in war, regardless of their status as celebrities. Because of the time frame of the Korean War, famous athletes such as Ted Williams, Willie Mays, and Mickey Mantle, some of the greatest to ever play the game of baseball, were expected to be willing and able to fight. EachRead MoreThe Impact of Japanese Mlb Players5610 Words   |  23 Pages Japanese baseball began, but at that time, baseball players played wearing kimonos and bare feet. Nowadays, most American baseball enthusiasts know Japanese top level players, such as Daisuke Matsuzaka, Hideki Matsui, and Ichiro Suzuki because they have many accomplishments in the highest level baseball league MLB [Major League Baseball]. Many Japanese professional baseball players are trying to move to America, as a result by 2009 16 Japanese players belonged to MLB teams (48 players born in Japan)Read MoreElectronic Sports: Really a Sport?1546 Words   |  7 Pagesbe leagues for the division of the skills of each player, a rules basis so that there is no cheating, and definitely a player base as well as fan base. Eventually eSports will become one of the next big televised events all over the world. It’s already gaining stardom in other parts of the world than the United States, but eventually it’ll catch on here too. Just as with the sports on the big television downstairs in the living room, such as soccer, basketball, football, softball, baseball, andRead MoreLol West Essay1316 Words   |  6 Pagesfour will disappoint. The Dodgers have won the division each of the last four years and will likely win it again this season. They have both a dynamite lineup and a light ‘em up rotation, but were plagued by injuries last season and have numerous players who are injury risks this year. Their ace is Clayton Kershaw, who has been an all-star for six consecutive seasons and the NL Cy Young winner thrice; in one of those years he won the NL MVP as well. Rich Hill pitched superbly last season when he wasRead More The Globalization of Sports Essay2164 Words   |  9 PagesManchester United as a soccer team has become so successful. According to Hill and Vincent the brand as product is very marketable because the familiarity of the basic concepts of the sport, the ease to play, the value of the En glish premier league as a league, and the country of origin for the modern game was invented in England. (Hill Vincent, 2006) The brand as organization also is marketable due to the traditional club youth program, the adding of household names, and the fast pace of playRead MoreCountry Notebook Essay12249 Words   |  49 Pagesdescriptions of the country and the financial conditions which are relevant for conducting this research. Concluding the paper we will have a recommendation as to whether or not it will be advisable for a Medical Products, Inc. to engage in South Korean Market. Medical Products, Inc. (MPI) is a U.S. firm founded in 1998 by a small group of medical and scientific research professionals. The firm is unusual in that its product line is aimed at two specific but unrelated markets: prenatal and postnatalRead MoreCase Study Brand Jordan: Selling a Legend4290 Words   |  18 Pages(almost all basketball shoes at that time were primarily white in color) and for its use of Nike’s new compressed air cushioning technology, Nike Airâ„ ¢. The NBA initially banned the shoe because its unusual red and white color scheme violated existing league dress code rules, creating a debate in the media that engendered widespread national coverage. This convergence of the shoe’s attributes, the controversy of the ban, and Jordan’s budding star power turned the Air Jordan into a very sought-afterRead MoreCountry Notebook for South Korea7606 Words   |  31 PagesSummary In 1997, Outback entered the  South Korean  market through the franchise agreement with Aussie Chung Inc. Currently there are 101 Outback Steakhouse locations throughout South Korea.  I recommend continued expansion in South Korea and would target the city of Busan in the southern region of the country. Busan is city with over 2 million in population with a highly educated population who have expendable income available for entertainment. South Koreans spend about 18 percent of their expendableRead MoreRacial Stacking in Football4286 Words   |  18 PagesBehind Racial Stacking and Stereotypes in Football Sport as an institution has seen many of its records and barriers shattered over its countless years of existence. For instance, sport has seen Jackie Robinson break the color barrier in Major League Baseball, and Billie Jean King defeat former champion Bobby Riggs in â€Å"The battle of the sexes†. One barrier that still exists in sports today is racial stacking and stereotyping. The social phenomenon of racial stacking and stereotyping within the institution

Foreign Aid Reduce Poverty

Question: Does Foreign Aid Reduce Poverty? Answer: Introduction A good percentage of governments across the globe depend for foreign aid to cater for their citizens. Most of these countries are drawn from the third world as a result of the high levels of poverty and stagnated economic growth. In Africa alone, all the 54 countries depend on foreign aid to fund their sectors and in the end stimulate growth. As most of the nations continue to benefit from foreign aid, there is a growing concern that this habit is not helping countries to stand alone and take the initiative towards self-dependency (Ndambendia Njoupouognigni, 2010). Policy makers and experts have been inevitably re-examining the role of foreign aid in developing countries, and they seem to be agreeing that foreign aid is a double-edged sword with positives and negatives in equal measure. In the same regard, it is imperative that most countries are grappling from high levels of wastage and corruption directed at aid funds as such, it is high time governments and stakeholders re-define d the role of foreign assistance and act promptly. South Africa receives substantive foreign aid annually from her key allies notably the United States. According to the latest statistics, the South African Government received a total of $275m from the US government in 2010 (Bald, 2011).This money was channeled through aid agencies and directed at various projects with the largest portion going to the health sector followed by development. This figure represents a decrease of more than 80% from the previous year (2009).This significant drop has been attributed to the dwindling global economy that culminates in foreign partners scaling down the figures as the economic downturn continues to bite. Going down to the ground, foreign aid has been a target for corruption cartels in South Africa who siphon around 33% of the annual foreign aid. Under such conditions, it is pertinent to reiterate that there is fear and caution among donors. However, South Africa can find solace in the fact that it is one of the largest economies in Africa and foreign aid makes up only 0.5% of the total GDP. Development Theories Several development theories have been put across to explain the impact of foreign aid and ultimately determine if it stimulates growth or not. These theories take into account several factors including the key indicators of growth as well as the priorities set by the governments in the process of utilizing aid (Dopfer Potts, 2015). These theories are founded on the rationale that foreign aid can have a short-term or long-term impact on the economy but cannot alleviate the challenges completely. Therefore, to understand the dynamics and intrigues of foreign aid, it is vital to explore the issue in relation to these theories before reaching to a conclusion. Fundamentally, development theories examine how nations can achieve desirable transformation in the society. Dependency Theory The Dependency theory emerged in the late 1950s when economists at the United Nations Economic Commission embarked on a series of studies to address the growing economic disparity between Western and third world nations. As most countries sought to forge economic and trade partnerships, there was fear that this was only benefiting a cluster of a few nations at the expense of the majority. According to the theory, poor nations would continue to get poorer because they exported their raw materials to the rich countries and then import finished products of the same material (Ferraro, 2008). In the process, powerful economies gave little back to the smaller nations in terms of aid to absolve themselves from any blame. The theorists argued that the impact of foreign aid was small and was not enough to revolutionize societies through economic stimulation and empowerment. Whereas foreign aid channeled through NGOs was seen as an ideal undertaking, the theory argues that this new dependency is running down good governance, responsibility, and accountability in many nations. The theory admits and refutes in parts the notion that foreign aid can reduce poverty. Regardless of the millions of dollars that are disbursed to African countries from America and other donors, this does not take way the fact that the core problem lies in the inequitable distribution of resources between nations. In this regard, countries that continue to tame the increased consumption of resources by its citizens will continue to depend on foreign aid for sustainable development and improvement of living standards (Thiombiano, 2016). Therefore, when the demand for fundamental services and amenities balloons, the foreign aid will not cushion the people against the extremes of poverty. A recent study by IMF found out that whereas foreign aid to Africa has been growing annually, the poverty index has not responded accordingly. The survey pointed out that aid disbursement is encouraging inefficiencies and wastage among developing nations and the effects trickle down to the people. Mos t governments are reluctant to seal the loopholes because they anticipate more foreign aid. Modernization Theory The modernization theory argues that a modern society can only exist in the present of robust social and economic structures that bring every citizen at par with the government reserves. The theory asserts that there are a misconception and a disconnection between economic development and poverty, especially in developing nations. It points out that social evolution in many societies is halted by the slow economic take-off and the failure of authorities to offer instant economic interventions (Inglehart Welzel, 2010). The modernization theory seeks to address the various aspects of a functioning society and the role of the government I securing the socio-economic security of the people. According to the theory, poverty is as a result of internal economic disconnections between people and government but can be solved by reducing dependency on external interventions. Through the modernization theory, it is imperative that foreign aid is one of the hindrances of self-regulation and government responsiveness to the needs of its people. Foreign aid targets empowering communities through education, sanitation and growth opportunities. Whereas it is evident that the society can derive some benefit from there, the larger picture implies the contrary. Most countries that depend on foreign aid to run substantive parts of their budgets have no channels of unleashing the potential laid down by foreign aid. Moreover, this aid comes under stringent provisions and can change the equation as countries tend to donate to nations where they can equally benefit. For example, investment of foreign aid in education by NGOs depends on the regimes ability to put in place enough infrastructures so that there is continuity. However, most countries are unable to do this, and the progress that foreign aid has initiated is halted. Structural Poverty Theory Amid the growing debate on the connection between poverty and foreign aid, less attention is being given to the nature of poverty that the latter can or cannot alleviate. This theory documents that the persistent levels of poverty in Africa follow a basic pattern because of economic systems that limit their income (Tingley, 2010). The theory asserts that the dynamism of African people is being held back by economically depleted systems that have numerous barriers to growth. Therefore, hardships keep emerging and creating holes that cannot be sealed even in the change of times. Africans are poor because of the failure of government to put in place systems that can work to reduce poverty. In such a scenario, foreign aid becomes an alternative channel to getting out of poverty but since it is not constant, the economic holes keep recurring (Milner, 2013). The structural poverty theory contradicts the individual poverty theory and seeks to dispel the notion that poverty is a personal choice that emanates from being lazy and less innovative. The former points out that people in African nations are hard-working, but they are restrained by bad governance and corruption from prospering. As such, any monetary input is likely to have little impact since the problems are escalating by day. The Failure of Aid in Reducing Poverty It is ironical that millions of Africans continue to wallow in poverty while stepping on reserves of precious raw materials. It is even more surprising that more than 75% of the African countries budgets rely on foreign aid. As former Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade put it, a country can never develop out of aid or credit" (Ayodele., et al, 2005). This is the reality that most African nations have failed to accept. The African scenario is made even more difficult by the absence of policies that embrace the free market approach that has been credited for the growth of countries like Taiwan and Singapore. In fact, a study by CATO in 2015 revealed that the more the foreign aid pumped to Africa, the lower the standards of living. The study pointed out that foreign aid is a recipe for corruption and bureaucracy. A substantive percentage of aid money is lost through wastage and in such countries, there is little or no economic stimulation targeting the core causes of poverty. Another reason for the failure of foreign aid in reducing poverty is the dismal figures of local investment. African nations have failed to lay down enabling policies and markets that can attract domestic investment. Foreign nations have put more investment in African nations, and whereas this promotes economic development, it also culminates in grooming a society that is compounded by persistent poverty. The role of foreign aid is thus submerged in uncertainties occasioned by infiltration of the market by foreigners (Tupy, 2005). Most countries, especially in Africa, have failed to prioritize internal investment over foreign investment. Consequently, a huge chunk of the money that streams in from abroad is used in activities that the government would have funded in the first place by giving access to the market and facilitation through policy making and priority setting. In the same regard, most of the foreign investors disburse the returns to their homeland and the cycle continues as citizens stagnate in poverty. Foreign aid is also failing because of bureaucracy in African nations that receive huge amounts of foreign aid. The aid channeled by governments through government agencies has become a major casualty of massive bureaucracy and sabotage (Andrews, 2009). States are refusing to baulk to Western pressure to implement reforms so that monitoring and evaluation can be possible. A survey done by IMF in 2010 revealed that only 4% of the countries in Africa can account for more than 80% of the foreign aid allocation. However, much of the funds had been deployed to projects that are likely to take longer to have a desirable impact on communities. For instance one of the countries (Lesotho) was more transparent but the poverty levels had not moved up in a five-year period (Bearce Tirone, 2010). This is because of the failure of the government to leverage the priorities with the provisions and policies of donor fund. Therefore, the likelihood of the poverty index dropping is almost negligible c onsidering that the key indicators of economic well-being and prosperity send a negative signal that scales down the level of funding in future. Culture has also been blamed on the slow responsiveness Africa to foreign aid and eventual alleviation of poverty. Economists argue that the poverty that has persisted in Africa over decades is as a result of psychological inferiority that is immune to any stimulation by monetary input (Small., et al, 2010). They argue that whereas most of the nations in the Dark Continent were at par with their counterparts from the East, the present state of economic development is quite different because Africa still thrives in the ancient culture of dependency. Africans consider themselves as less fortunate, and they feel that is the obligation of donor states to pump in millions of dollars so that they can get out of poverty (Winters, 2010). In this context, progress cannot be achieved if the society lives without laying a marker on how to reduce poverty by limiting their dependence on foreign aid. Therefore, despite concerted efforts to safeguard the usage of foreign aid, little progress can be expected unless there is a change of perception. Conclusion This paper has looked at the link between foreign aid and development in African countries. The study has examined the ability of foreign aid to reduce poverty and spur economic development in African countries. Based on the arguments and in relation to three (3) development theories, it is clear that this debate elicits several reactions. However, it is bold to state that foreign aid is an integral part of many economies in the world. However, there is need for African countries to reduce dependence by embarking on internal policies and programs that will improve the lives of the people. References Dopfer, K., Potts, J. (2015).The general theory of economic evolution. Routledge. Ferraro, V. (2008). Dependency theory: An introduction.The development economics reader,12(2), 58-64. Thiombiano, D. (2016). Chinas foreign aid in Africa: The Case Studies of Angola and Niger. Inglehart, R., Welzel, C. (2010). Changing mass priorities: The link between modernization and democracy.Perspectives on Politics,8(02), 551-567. Ayodele, T., Cudjoe, F., Nolutshungu, T. A., Sunwabe, C. K. (2005). African perspectives on aid: Foreign assistance will not pull Africa out of poverty.Economic Development Bulletin,2, 1-4. Tupy, M. L. (2005). Poverty That Defies Aid.CATO Institute. Andrews, N. (2009). Foreign aid and development in Africa: What the literature says and what the reality is.Journal of African Studies and Development,1(1), 8. Milner IV, H. R. (2013). Analyzing poverty, learning, and teaching through a critical race theory lens.Review of Research in Education,37(1), 1-53. Small, M. L., Harding, D. J., Lamont, M. (2010). Reconsidering culture and poverty. Williamson, C. R. (2010). Exploring the failure of foreign aid: The role of incentives and information.The review of Austrian economics,23(1), 17-33. Bearce, D. H., Tirone, D. C. (2010). Foreign aid effectiveness and the strategic goals of donor governments.The Journal of Politics,72(3), 837-851. Winters, M. S. (2010). Accountability, participation and foreign aid effectiveness.International Studies Review,12(2), 218-243. Tingley, D. (2010). Donors and domestic politics: Political influences on foreign aid effort.The quarterly review of economics and finance,50(1), 40-49. Ekanayake, E. M., Chatrna, D. (2010). The effect of foreign aid on economic growth in developing countries.Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies,3, 1. Bald, Y. (2011). The impact of remittances and foreign aid on savings/investment in Sub?Saharan Africa.African Development Review,23(2), 247-262. Ndambendia, H., Njoupouognigni, M. (2010). Foreign aid, foreign direct investment and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from pooled mean group estimator (PMG).International journal of economics and finance,2(3), 39-45.

Navy SEALs Essays - Military Engineering, Underwater Demolition Team

Navy SEALs Navy SEALs United States Navy SEALs, who are they, what do they do, why are they so secretive? A Navy SEAL is a highly trained individual. He must go through the toughest training in the world. The government will send them to the ends of the earth to do tasks that would send chills up most of our spines. Most of their operations even though top secret involve capturing an individual of power, to get information through capturing anything our government thinks important . They are sometimes required to kill certain individuals. They rarely work alone, they depend on each other. Some say that your swim buddy is closer to you than your wife. This is just a glance at what they do. A history lesson on how the Navy SEALs came to be, started back in World War Two. The navy considers the Scouts and Raiders to be the direct-and earliest-frontrunners of today's SEALs. But despite the original intention, the Scouts and Raiders did not become broad-based commandos like the SEALs. In most of their operations, they were limited to direct support of the amphibious force, guiding marine and army units ashore. Later a few of them served with guerrilla units behind enemy lines in China, and many were blended in with the Underwater Demolition Teams involved in the campaign against the Japanese in the Pacific. One of the first missions to bring fame to the Scouts and Raiders started out with seventeen sailors boarded a small, wooden-hulled boat and headed up the Wadi Sebou, a stream that went through Port Lutey (now Kenitra, Morocco). Their task was to cut the cables anchoring a boom and antishipping net stretched across the river directly under the machine guns and cannons in a fort overlooking the river. With the way cleared, American warships would be able to fight their way up the river and protect soldiers moving in to seize the city's military airfield. Not being limited to just sabotage the Scouts and Raiders were also becoming experts in bomb disposing, one was a two-thousand ?pound mine dropped by parachute. If the mine came down on land instead of water, it was supposed to go off seventeen seconds later. But sometimes the fuzzes jammed and the experts were called in. If in tinkering with the mine, the bomb-disposal man started it ticking again, he had something less than seventeen seconds to get away. The reliance on physical stress as a way of testing a man's capability and screening out those who don't measure up remains an important part of the training of the navy's SEALs to this day. Today's SEALs are also experts on using explosives and, if need be, disarming enemy munitions. So there is a direct link back to the bomb-disposal experts trained half a century ago. The first volunteers came mostly from Seabees, (construction workers for the navy) with officers raided from the bomb-disposal school. Training began with a one-week ordeal that is still known as Hell Week and that quickly eliminated forty percent of the class. The survivors were proud of their accomplishment, but they joked that "Hell Week separated the men from the boys; the men had sense enough to quit and left us with the boys." The trainees at Fort Pierce spent much of their time in rubber boats and in the mud, and they ran miles every day. But surprisingly, little attention was paid to swimming. The assumption was that they would paddle ashore as part of an amphibious operation and do their demolition work in relatively shallow water while army demolition experts took over at the high-water mark. Although men of the Underwater Demolition Teams later prided themselves on their nickname of the Naked Warriors, the trainees at Fort Pierce were anything but naked. They did their work dressed in soggy fatigues, with heavy boondocker shoes on their feet and awkward metal helmets on their heads. Much of their training was done at night. The men quickly became very good at handling high explosives. Those who couldn't overcome their fear of being blown to kingdom come were sent off to other assignments. They were probably the smart ones. As the UDT men later realized, they and their explosives-filled rubber boats were disasters waiting to happen. The newly trained men now will use their tactics. Operating from small rubber boats at night, the men took soundings of the water depth all along the planned invasion beaches. They even crawled ashore one night and brought back a bucketful of sand so army experts could test it to determine how well it would support tanks and other heavy

David Carson - A Brief Look At His Work Essays - Free Essays

David Carson - A Brief Look At His Work Essays - Free Essays David Carson - A Brief Look At His Work MAIN NAME SHEET David Carson was born in Texas in the United States. Many of his design influences have come from his early childhood while travelling around America, Puerto Rico and the West Indies. His first significant exposure to graphic design education came as part of a three-week workshop in Switzerland, where the Swiss graphic designer Hans-Rudolph Lutz influenced him. He then worked in a high school near San Diego from 1982 to 1987. During this time he also carried highly experimental graphic design as the art director of the magazine Transworld Skateboarding. Among his abilities of art directing, graphic designing and film directing, he was also a professional surfer. His immense interest in the surfing culture persuaded him to return to the West Coast where he helped launch the magazine Beach Culture. The magazine only lasted three years but Carsons pioneering approach to design, particularly toward typography challenged the fundamental aspects of all design and graphic communication. SURFER SHEET Carsons work was often arresting and powerfully communicative. From 1991 to 1992 he worked on Surfer magazine. The straightforward styling of the covers was a strong contrast to the later How magazine covers. Here you could associate with Carson as his unique use of typography filled each cover to give an interesting introduction to the contents. After this came his break into an international profile when he helped launch Raygun magazine, designing the first 30 issues. This magazine, aimed at the youth market with the sub-title of the bible of music+style, received more attention for Carsons design than for its relatively conventional text content. After this very successful period of Carsons life, his work began to attract wider audiences: it was featured by many mainstream publications, including the New York Times in May 1994, and Newsweek Magazine in 1996. The main comments from the publications were how Carson stood out for his ability to communicate in mass-media print with a new graphic language, one that worked on a level beyond words. RAY-BAN SHEET His commercial clients included major American brands such as Pepsi Cola, Nike, Levi-Strauss, Microsoft, Budweiser, Giorgio Armani, Ray-Ban and NBC. This particular advert for Ray-Ban sunglasses is a good use of a visual pun. The product was called Ray-Ban Orbs, and here you can see that he uses the sunglasses as the O of the word. This idea was also used across posters, print ads and postcards. As you can see in the corner of this ad, unlike the majority of designers, Carson likes to show the reader that he is the designer and insists on most of his ads to carry his name. This use of self-advertising is particularly useful because Carson has seen the opportunity to publicise his name and to show people that he is linked with major brand companies. You may also note that his name is more prominent than the actual Ray-Ban logo and that it appears directly below the logo. By doing this, Carson may feel that his name is more of an endorsement than the actual logo or that his name is onl y used with the most prolific brands. CUERVO GOLD SHEET Another interesting advert, this time with heavy typographic influence is this one for Cuervo Gold Tequila. The text in this ad is very legible, because Carson needs to display a lot of information but also keeps the reader interested by adjusting the type size and spacing. The first line is also very catchy and the whole text draws you deeper and deeper into the ad until you hit the punch line. WORKSHOP SHEET At the same time he worked for low-cost or free with student workshops, talks and related activities. In his Time After Type workshop in Dusseldorf, Carson suggested the signing of the space should be done by projecting large type into one corner. Here you can see that the type is only readable in one space, providing an intriguing exploration of perspective that requires viewers to question their relationship with the sign and to seek out the route to communication. INTERNET SITE SHEET This final piece of work is for two ads for an Internet search company, which play off the idea of extracting

GPS and Telecommunications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

GPS and Telecommunications - Essay Example GPS is a system composed of 24 satellites rotating around at 12,000 feet. The system allows the user to determine the location of something in precise manner. A GPS system can achieve precision within 5 meters. When it was invented in 1978 the system was utilized for military applications. Three satellites allow the creation of 2D images, but when four satellites interlock the user can achieve 3D images (8garnin, 2009). The best attribute that of GPS technology is that its users do not have to pay a penny to gain access to the technology. The fact that GPS is an open source allowed companies to exploit the technology to gain profits. GPS has changed the lives of people around the world. Mobile technology is segment in the communication industry that has benefit a lot. GPS receptor system used to be, but a days a cellular telephone can be converted automatically into a GPS device that allows a person to exactly where he is even if the person is in moving vehicle. A lot of new vehicles come with a GPS as standard feature which allows the driver lo look road maps in and determine the best route to get to the desired location. The map guiding gaps application also applies to mobile phone. The gaps communication capabilities have change the way companies do business. The retail giant Wal-Mart utilizes gps derived application such as radio frequency identification (RFID) in order to determine the location of items. Wal-Mart has the capability to determine the movement of valuable inventory while it is in transit and once it arrives at warehouses it allows the company to eliminate wastage in its supply chain function. Since their costs are lower the company is able to pass those savings on the customer. This example shows how improved communication systems application benefits a large group of people. Another way gps is helping people around the world is by its utilization in agricultural projects. Ground –based weather, plant stage

Philosophy presentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Philosophy presentation - Essay Example The principle of â€Å"initial† panopticon is as follows: there is a building which has a circular form (a ring), and in its centre there is a tower. The tower has big windows which face the interior side of the ring. The tower standing against the light, the prisoners’ figures can be seen clearly. Michel Foucault defines panoptism either as a concrete light organization which is characteristic for a prison, or as an abstract principle, a certain â€Å"mechanism† which is able to penetrate into all functions and structures, all sides of human life. An abstract formula of panoptism is, therefore, not â€Å"to see without being seen†, but to force a certain type of behaviour onto any number of people, any society. This social group should be reduced, placed into an enclosed space. A certain type of behaviour is enforced by means of relocation in space, classification in time, arrangement in space and time. Power is not necessarily a centralized power of a state. According to M. Foucault, the State itself emerges as a result of cooperation of numerous mechanisms and centres, which are situated at a different level and independently form the microphysics of power. How is the idea of Foucault reflected in our everyday life? In fact, all modern societies can be classified as â€Å"disciplinary† societies, â€Å"discipline† being a type of power, a technology penetrating all possible institutions, connecting them, prolonging their existence, stimulating their convergence and exposition in a brand-new regime. Army, schools, hospitals, and other institutions have more and more widely used such mechanisms of power illustrated by â€Å"Panopticon†. The spread of these mechanisms led to creation of the â€Å"disciplined society†, in which the â€Å"visibility† of the minority by the majority was gradually forced out by the â€Å"visibility† of the majority by the minority†, and the spectacular

Contemporary Theories of Reasoning: An Analysis

Contemporary Theories of Reasoning: An Analysis Computational and algorithmic challenges to contemporary theories of reasoning Kattja Madrell Reasoning is the process of using given information to draw valid conclusions and produce new information (Goel Dolan, 2003) based on a combination of beliefs and language of thought (Fodor, 2001). The language of thought hypothesis proposed by Fodor (2001) states that thought and thinking occurs in a mental language; mental representations of reasoning are like sentences and this is why language of thought is sometimes also known as Mentalese (Murat 2010). Fodor (2001) admitted, however, that language of thought alone could not be used to explain reasoning; instead a combination of language of thought and a person’s belief is now accepted as the basis of human reasoning. Evans, Barston, Pollard (1983) found that a person’s beliefs about the conclusion of an argument influenced whether or not they deemed that conclusion to be valid; the truth value of a conclusion was based upon its logical relationship to a belief (Goel Dolan, 2003). Marr’s Levels of Analysis (1982) is a tri-level hypothesis that provides us with a critical framework to analyse and evaluate models of psychology thoroughly and consistently. There are three different levels; the computational level, the algorithmic level and the implementational level. In the field of cognitive psychology these levels have also been referred to as the semantic, the syntactic, and the physical (Pylyshyn, 1984). Marr (1982) describes the three levels of analysis as the following: â€Å"1. Computational Theory: the goal of the computation, why is it appropriate, and what is the logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out? 2. Representation and algorithm: How can this computational theory be implemented? In particular, what is the representation for the input and output, and what is the algorithm for the transformation? 3. Hardware implementation: How can the representation and algorithm be realized physically?† In other words, the computational level of analysis is concerned with what the model or system in question does and why does it do so. The algorithmic level builds upon this and analyses the way in which the system performs its computation whilst the implementational level is concerned with the way in which the system is physically implemented. Each level is a realisation of the level before it providing a more complete explanation of the system than its predecessor. This allows for the preservation of many of the properties of inter-level relationships in complex systems (McClamrock, 1991). This essay will discuss some of the critical issues and challenges to various contemporary theories of reasoning using Marr’s levels of analysis. Monotonic reasoning is based upon a series of logical rules. These rules are strict, rigid and cannot be altered by the addition of new information; instead this leads to the production of new beliefs (Brachman Levesque, 2004). In the absence of justifications that would make a rule non-monotonic, we use monotonic reasoning as a default (Lakemeyer Nebel, 1994). For example: A bass guitar (A) has four strings (B) A = B. James’ instrument (C) is a bass guitar (A) A = C Therefore James’ instrument (C) has four strings (B) (C = B) This is an example of monotonic reasoning; the rules are consistent and based on logic and do not appear to be problematic. But what happens when we learn that James’s bass guitar actually has five strings? Reasoning monotonically forces us to learn a new rule (A =  ¬B) that contradicts a rule that is already known to be true (A = B). The principle of contradiction proposes that statements which contract each other – such as â€Å"a bass guitar has four strings† and â€Å"a bass guitar does not have four strings† – are mutually exclusive and cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time (Whitehead Russell, 1912). Monotonic reasoning displays a computational crisis when faced with logically contradicting information; as the rules cannot be manipulated or altered, the goal of the reasoning cannot be achieved. As we gain new information on various things on a regular basis, it is inappropriate to reason monotonically, like in classical logic (Isaac, Szymanik Verbrugge, 2013), as we will not be able to incorporate any new information to our established beliefs. It stands to reason that the only appropriate time to rely on monotonic reasoning is when in a situation in which one has complete knowledge; this, however, is still risky as one may believe that they have complete knowledge of a situation as long as they are not aware of any reason or evidence to suspect otherwise, demonstrating a false belief of what is known as the Closed World Assumption, an example of non-monotonic reasoning (Etherington, 1986) Non-monotonic reasoning is computationally more complex than monotonic reasoning; with its main forms all sharing the same level of complexity (Eiter Gottlob, 1992). This is because the system is malleable and based on various different connections being made. Unlike in monotonic reasoning, the addition of new information that may be contradictive of beliefs already held can alter what is already known; this occurs in two main ways belief revision and belief update. Belief revision is the addition of new information into a set of old beliefs without any logical contradictions or inconsistencies; preserving as much information as possible. Belief update is the changing (or ‘updating’) of old beliefs to take into account any differences (Gà ¤rdenfors, 2003). Non-monotonic reasoning leads to common-sense conclusions being drawn that are based upon the combination of both supporting evidence and the lack of contradictory evidence; Monotonic reasoning encounters problems with this due to the fact that the beliefs being reasoned about do not consider the absence of knowledge (Etherington, 1986). Non-monotonic reasoning shows a level of tautology that is not present in its monotonic counterpart; as beliefs are revised or updated to incorporate new information they become harder to negate. Take the previous example: A bass guitar (A) has four strings (B) A = B James’ instrument (C) is a bass guitar (A) A = C Therefore James’ instrument (C) has four strings (B) (C = B) We now know that the bass guitar in question has 5 strings. Using non-monotonic reasoning we can now amend our initial belief that a bass guitar has four strings so that it now shows: A bass guitar (A) usually has four strings (B) unless it does not have four strings ( ¬B) A = B unless A =  ¬B This example demonstrates a common display of default reasoning (Reiter, 1980); statistically most A’s are B’s so it is acceptable to make a general assumption based on the statistical majority. As well as making general assumptions, default reasoning is also based upon conventional and persistent assumptions, along with a lack of contradictive information (Brachman Levesque, 2004). Various rules of inference in non-monotonic reasoning have been proposed and explored, including circumscription (McCarthy, 1980) and negation as failure (Clark, 1978). The closed world assumption is a form of non-monotonic reasoning based on the assumption of complete knowledge. Proposed by Reiter in 1978 the closed world assumption is described as follows: â€Å"If we assume all relevant positive information is known, anything which is not known to be true must be false. Negative facts may simply be inferred from absence of positive counter parts† (Reiter, 1978). To put it in other terms, if P is not provable from the knowledge base available then we must assume not P ( ¬P) (Etherington, 1986). This assumption has one major flaw; should a person not be in possession of all the relevant information, then the assumption can no longer apply. When (and only when) there is a complete and expert knowledge of the matter being reasoned about is it truly appropriate to employ the closed world assumption. In order to prevent unwanted inferences of non-monotonic logic, such as the false belief of the closed world assumption, it is necessary to retract any assumption of complete knowledge; this leads to the use of implicit general assumptions (Brachman Levesque, 2004). If the addition of any newly learned information is contradictive to these general assumptions, adjustments are made (Etherington, 1986) and beliefs are updated or revised (Gà ¤rdenfors, 2003). The general assumptions made when reasoning non-monotonically are based upon normalcy obtained from knowledge and experience; we may assume that James’ bass guitar has four strings as bass guitars normally do so. But what statistical probability can be assigned to an assumption to label it as ‘normal’ and what situational factors determine which assumptions can be made? When does a situation deem it appropriate to assume? The complexity of the ever-changing algorithms behind non-monotonic reasoning lead to different results being produced; for example, due to slight changes in situation, individual differences and varying information. Default reasoning is arguably one of the most popular forms of non-monotonic reasoning (Reiter, 1978). Based on the principles of default logic (see Nebel, 1991; Goldszmidt Pearl, 1996), default reasoning demonstrates a serious computational crisis known as the specificity principle. The specificity principle states that, when faced with a logical conflict, people make assumptions based more commonly upon more specific defaults than general ones (Brachman Levesque, 2004); this can lead to stronger conclusions and, although at times, these conclusions are correct, the assumption itself that more specific defaults should be preferred is logically lacking (Brewka, 1994). In order to â€Å"make up† for this problem of specificity, one would have to overtly assign the appropriate priority levels to the defaults in regards to the situation in question. According to the principle of contradiction proposed by Whitehead Russell in 1912, when faced with a logical contradiction, a logical person should be able to disregard the restrictions of their system of reasoning to arrive at a logical conclusion. This however is not the case. In fact, much literature to date has shown human beings to behave in an illogical manner, demonstrating various logical fallacies that people reason with when using argumentation to negotiate life in a complex world (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). A few examples of this are ad hominem, ad Hitlerum and the slippery slope argument. When the character of an individual is attacked, it is suggested that any proposition they put forward should be disregarded; this is known as Ad Hominem (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). Ad hominem is a logical fallacy that proposes that once the character or credibility of an individual has been questioned, it is no longer possible for one to have absolute confidence in what that individual says (Harris, 2012). The term ad Hitlerum was coined by Leo Strauss in 1953; it is the name given to the logical argumentation that an idea or a view can be refuted if it is compared to one that may be held by Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party. Harris et al., in 2012, conducted a series of experiments to see whether or not participants agreed or disagreed with an opinion that may had been similar to a view shared by Hitler. They found that participants demonstrated sensitivity to probabilistic information when they were evaluating whether or not the ad Hitlerum argument was convincing. This showed that people based some of their conclusions on the origin of an argument rather than current facts. The slippery slope argument is another logical fallacy based upon belief or assumption rather than evidence, in this case not doing something for fear of what negative consequences that action may lead to. Corner, Hahn, and Oaksford (2011) outlined four defining components of the slippery slope argument: . â€Å"An initial proposal (A). . An undesirable outcome (C). . The belief that allowing (A) will lead to a re-evaluation of (C) in the future. . The rejection of (A) based on this belief.† Within beliefs in the slippery slope argument there appears to be some sort of implied mechanism which leads to the consequent action (C) directly from the antecedent action (A), even though this belief is not based upon prior knowledge nor empirical findings (Hahn Oaksford, 2013). These logical argumentations provide a computational challenge as, should human beings operate logically, conclusions should not be drawn based upon these fallacies however empirical evidence has shown that they frequently are (Harris et al., in 2012). Bayes Theorum is a formula proposed by Thomas Bayes that can be used to calculate probability in everyday reasoning (Bayes Price, 1763). Bayesian reasoning is the process of reasoning probabilistically under uncertain circumstances when not all information is known or available (Korb Nicholson, 2011). Using Bayes theorem, we can calculate the likelihood of different outcomes based on prior knowledge and experience of the world, assign probabilistic values and act accordingly (Oaksford Chater, 2007). The use of Bayesian reasoning has provided a new perspective in the analysis of psychological research; results from empirical studies have shown great deficits in human ability to reason logically (Wason, 1972). Where it would be most logical for participants to seek evidence that negated their hypothesis, they instead searched for and selected evidence that could only lead to the confirmation of their hypotheses (Hahn, Harris Oaksford, 2013). Using Bayes Theorem, however, Oaksford Chater (1994) demonstrated that this confirmatory response was actually the most probabilistically logical response; it involved the selection of data that provided the most information about the truth or falsity of the hypotheses (Hahn, Harris Oaksford, 2013). Persuasion is the process of sending a message to change a belief or incite an action. As well as its personal use, persuasion plays a major role in advertising, politics, law and many more public activities (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). There are a variety of different Bayesian persuasion mechanisms, such as talk games (Crawford Sobel, 1982), persuasion games (Milgrom Roberts, 1986), and signalling games (Spence, 1973); Bà ©nabou and Tirole (2004) further adapted the use of Bayesian persuasion to investigate mechanisms of self-signalling and self-regulation. Throughout all aspects of Bayesian reasoning, one thing remains constant; a person (A) can affect the actions of another (B) only by first changing the beliefs of B (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). Bayesian persuasion has been criticised in terms of its computational properties. Unlike argumentation, persuasion is concerned with what persuasive techniques work and why regardless of whether or not the reasoning was rational (Madsen et al., 2013). Empirically, the results of study into persuasion have shown that the effects on a person’s beliefs rarely persist (Cook Flay, 1978). There is also a lack of evidence in literature demonstrating that belief change resulting from a persuasive argument produces behaviour that corresponds with the change in belief (Festinger 1964). Bayesian reasoning shows a great deal of algorithmic complexity. The type of information being reasoned about has an effect upon the conclusions drawn with people showing greater difficulty in reasoning with conditional information than joint information (Lewis Keren, 1999). The probability estimates for a hypothesis are frequently updated with the addition of new relevant information using Bayesian inference. Gigerenzer Hoffrage (1995) analysed thousands of Bayesian problems and found that the adaptation of Bayes theorem using a frequency formats can be used to reduce algorithmic complexity. Bayesian persuasion is also a very complex process, most successful persuasion of belief happens after multiple persuasion attempts over a long period of time (Kamenica Gentzkow, 2009). Hahn and Oaksford (2013) proposed that the most influential factor of persuasion is the quality of the argument being put forward; because the quality of an argument is subject to personal opinion it provokes the question ‘what makes an argument good or bad?’ Human beings are not perfect Bayesians (Mullainathan, Schwartzstein Shleifer, 2008) and while some persuasive activities may reflect a person’s failures of rationality, Kamenica and Gentzkow (2009) concluded that a complete understanding of a Bayesian persuasion is needed in order to fully assess results in literature. Recently, psychological study has begun addressing the current issues in the computational and algorithmic levels of different types of reasoning. The effects of emotion upon the ability to reason logically have been called in to question (see Blanchette, 2013; Ayesh, 2003) as has the much greater issue of subjectivity in Bayesian reasoning (see Press, 2009; Ben-David Ben-Eliyahu-Zohary, 2000).

GMO Labeling Essay -- Genetically Modified Consumer Food Essays

GMO labeling Ever since their entrance onto the consumer market in the last two decades of the twentieth century, genetically modified organisms (often referred to as GMOs) have been getting mixed reviews from the public. Genetically modified consumer products (primarily food) have pushed the barriers of some people's comfort levels. Born out of either a lack of knowledge or a sincere concern for public health or the environment, a consumer rights movement has been planted around the world pushing for labeling of genetically modified food products. This movement has matured in many places to a degree where interest groups have successfully lobbied governments into adopting criteria for labeling transgenic food products. In other parts of the world strong agriculture interests have clashed with the aforementioned movements. A simple label on a can of beans would seem to easily solve this problem; however, governments have found that GMO product labeling is more complex than that. Considerations such as costs, international markets and cultures must also be taken into consideration, not to mention the public's perception and their level of trust in this relatively new product. Research in both medical microbiology and agriculture laid the groundwork for what is modern biotechnology. This is newer science, seen by many to have officially begun with the discovery of recombinant DNA technology by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1970 (biotech.ca 1). Recombinant DNA technology, aided by the use of restriction enzymes, allow humans to cut one part of a genome of one species that codes for a desirable trait and insert it into a different species in the hope of producing the same effect (biote... ... label to fix. Works Cited - ¡Ãƒ Detailed Description of new GMO labeling in the E.U. ¡ÃƒÅ" Organic Consumers Association. 2001. 10/5/04. http://www.organicconsumers.org/gefood/gmolabing080101.cfm -Diani, Hera.  ¡Ãƒ Inodnesians Demand GMO labeling. ¡ÃƒÅ" The Jakarta Post. November 4th 2001. 10/2/04. http://organicconsumers.org/gefood/indonesia110801.cfm - ¡Ãƒ Economic Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops on the Agri-food sector. ¡ÃƒÅ" European Commission Directorate General for Agriculture. 2003. The European Commission. 10/4/04. - ¡Ãƒ History of Biotechnology. ¡ÃƒÅ" Biotechnology in Canada. 2004. 10/5/04 http://www.biotech.ca/EN/history.html. -Le Meur, Herve.  ¡Ãƒ Re: Have Ground Rules been set for GMO definition? ¡ÃƒÅ" lemeur@diligo.fr. November 26th 2000. - ¡Ãƒ Sticky Labels. ¡ÃƒÅ" The Economist. April 29th 1999. 10/5/04 www.economist.com.

Paradise Lost Essay

While contrasting the attitudes, and results of Jesus in the Bible, with the attitudes and results of Satan in the book Paradise Lost I discovered many comparing themes. The attitudes of Jesus that we find in the Bible are great examples for us all on how to live our lives, compared to the attitudes of Satan, whose life we may not want to follow in an example. Always when we understand Jesus’ true character, we find that Satan’s true character is the exact opposite of His. Pride is the interest of one’s own selfish needs, desires and not showing interests in everyone else’s needs and desires. The evidence of Satan’s prideful attitude in Paradise Lost is very relevant in Milton’s epic. Satan displayed â€Å"obdurate pride,† translated as stubborn pride, in Paradise Lost. Satan was stubborn in his ways, and would not relent or give in to living the life style of Jesus Christ’s. The antonym for pride is humility. Humility is the actions and thoughts of being humble and modest. Humility was a character trait that Jesus exemplified perfectly. In John 13 we find an example of humility; Jesus knelt down and washed His own disciple’s feet. Jesus did all this with a grateful heart and attitude of humility. Without happiness one cannot experience joy. When Satan was cast to hell he developed a strong hatred towards God. Paradise Lost described Satan’s attitude of â€Å"steadfast hate,† toward God and men. In contrast, Matthew 5:44 states â€Å"†¦love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you.† Jesus modeled love daily in His life and also through His dying; He covered all our sins even though we were unworthy of His everlasting love. The final contrasting attitudes are rebellion, and obedience. In Paradise Lost Satan displayed the attitude of rebellion. This was seen when he said, â€Å"better to reign in hell, then serve in Heaven.† He was firmly stating that no matter what the circumstances he would no want to ever serve the Most High in His Kingdom.

Analysis Of Different Research Methods Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2018 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? This chapter aims to describe the methodology employed in this research. There are basically two approaches, namely quantitative and qualitative approaches. Research Methodology is defined by Fellows and Liu (2008) as the principles and procedures of logical thought processes which are applied to a scientific investigation. Quantitative approach Quantitative methodology tends to gather factual data, to study relationships between facts and how such facts and relationships accord with theories (Fellows and Liu, 2008). The purpose of this strategy is to explain a social phenomena rather than to understand the meaning of things itself (Smith, 2003). The main advantage of quantitative approach is fast and economical, meanwhile the procedures are more reliable and results of the research can be replicated (Naoum, 2009). However, the principles of quantitative approach focus on the facts in natural word. Thus, as Bryman (2008) argued that quantitative method s could ignore the human value and interpretation and distinguish the people from the world. The analysis of the variables creates a statistic view of social life which is apart from peoples life. Furthermore, a quantitative research relies on instruments and procedures hinder the connection between research and everyday life. (Fellows and Liu, 2008) Qualitative approach In contrast, qualitative methodology seek to obtain subjective issues in the natural world and lay stress on peoples internal perceptions, meanings, experiences, opinions, views and understandings rather than the numerical testing and verification to the world (Creswell, 2007). As comments by Bryman (2008), qualitative method could be influenced by outside learning and cannot be replicated as quantitative data. Furthermore, due to resource constrains, the sample size cannot stand for the whole population. In addition, the information might be interpreted subjectively with bias; meanwhile, misunderstanding o f interviewer can also cause the unquantifiable risk to the research. Each of the methodology has its own strength and weakness. The comparison of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies are shown in the table below: Table 3.1 The comparison of quantitative and qualitative methodologies Source: Naoum (2009) Triangulation Research Approach A mixed method can synthesize the strength and reduce weakness of these quantitative and qualitative approaches. When there is a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies aiming to study the same problem or phenomenon, it forms a triangulation (Kummar, 2005). As asserted by Fellow and Liu (2008), adopting a triangulation in the research can be very powerful to gain insights and results, to assist in making inferences and in drawing conclusions. The process of triangulation is illustrated as figure below. Figure 3.1 Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data Source: Fellow and Liu (2008) Resea rch methods for construction, 3rd edition. Research Design Functionally, this research design intends to provide a general plan and procedures to answer research questions(Kumar, 2005), considering data collection method and analysis within constrains of data assessing, time, capital and ethical issues (Saunders et al., 2007). 3.2.1 Literature Review process This research intends to commence with literature review which can provide secondary information in data collection and become a secondary research included in this research paper. A quantitative data collection will be conducted based on the previous literature materials in order to examine practical situation of the Quota and its Pricing System utilizing in construction procurement procedures over construction industry in China. 3.2.2 Data collection Primary data collection will be conducted in this dissertation. Prior to analysis the results, the primary data will be conducted to establish and examine how th e professionals perceive and implement quota and pricing system based on the factual execution, knowledge and professionals views as well as practical executed situation of this system under and after the circumstances of the National Bills of Quantities carried out in 2003 over Chinas construction procurement process. During the collection processes, a triangulation methodology allocating with structured questionnaire, semi-structured interview and case study methods are employed to gather both quantitative and qualitative data. 3.2.1.1 Questionnaire Survey Structured questionnaire The purpose of structured questionnaire is to obtain primary information which could be quantified and analysed to show the facts, attitudes and perceptions of person on quota and pricing system over construction procurement in China. Adopting a questionnaire survey does have a range of benefits. Like comments by Naoum (2009), the method of data collection is perceived to offer relatively hig her validity of results as this survey covers different area in China, including Shenyang, Beijing, Shanghai and Xinjiang and other provinces. Due to it is administrated and transmitted by internet as well as time permitted; it is really a quick method for conducting data collection. Meanwhile, questionnaires can be completed flexibly when the respondents are convenience and provide less opportunity for mistake arising from perception or attitudes in interview methods. Whilst the advantages are attached by researchers, the limitation of a questionnaire cannot be ignored. Because this survey is dependent on the construction industry and professional knowledge, all the questions setting in questionnaire should be simple and straightforward to understand and answer. Furthermore, this method is inflexible for researchers to probe and follow up other interesting points (Bryman, 2008). Meanwhile, there is no opportunity to clarify ambiguity from the respondents answers. Moreover, the r espondents may answer what the researchers want to hear, of which also can lead to inaccuracy in a research result. In addition, under pressures of modern business, there may be fatigue for the respondents in the construction industry and cause less priority for questionnaires. However, it is possible that not getting all responses back, typically the response rates lie between 40%-60% or considerably lower than this rate. (Naoum, 2009) Closed-ended and Open-ended questions According to the aims of the questionnaire, all questions produced in this structured questionnaire are devised from the findings from the literature view. The questionnaire was organized using mainly closed-ended questions which can be analysed straightforward without writing by respondents. However, two open-ended questions were constructed to allow respondents to act their views if they wish. According to Naoum (2009), a pilot study was carried out with several professionals providing a trial run for the questionnaire, involving wording techniques, identifying ambiguous questions. After feedback from pilot study, a few minor amendments were revised to ensure better clarity of questions and eliminate ambiguous words in this questionnaire. Furthermore, from the background information from respondents of pilot study, the content and questionnaire formation could also be refined. Sampling in structured questionnaires A sample is a specimen or part of a whole population which is drawn to show what the rest like (Naoum, 2009). The aims in selecting a sample are to obtain maximum precision in research estimations within given samples. Meanwhile, it should avoid bias in the selection of the samples (Kummar, 2005). Saunders et al. (2007) classified samples as two general types: probability (random) and non-probability (non-random) sampling. In this questionnaire survey, non-random sampling will be conducted to address the research questions and objectives, due to constraints of time and resource. The questionnaire will be sent to professional construction cost estimator working in different regions in China. The sample size intends to be 60. Ideally, the sample will be enough to elicit better response rate, however, the sample size is restricted by time and capital resource. Internet web questionnaire method has been chosen as it is cheaper than postal type; meanwhile it can obtain a wide coverage of cities. 3.2.1.2 Qualitative Semi-structured Interviews In order to supplement deficiency in structured questionnaires, semi-structured interview will be conducted to collect more in-depth subjective information from respondents. Semi-structured Interview In structured interview, a set of predetermined questions are presented in the same order and wording, including open-ended or closed-ended questions, whilst the interviewer will control during the interview process (Kummar, 2005). In contrast, there is no predetermined list of questions in unstruc tured interview. However, Semi-structured interview is the spectrum between structured and unstructured interview (Fellow and Liu, 2008). Semi-structured interviews will also be employed with several professionals working in the industry and the literature review has provided basis of questions in interview through identifying the functions of quota pricing system in variation valuation, resources optimization and effective tool to solve disputations in construction industry in China Semi-structured Interviewing method is a major technique for collecting qualitative factual information and opinions using purposive samples to gather detailed information as well as valid and reliable data which are relevant to research question and objectives (Saunders et al., 2007). In this research, carrying out a semi-structured interview is a flexible qualitative method which can obtain a high response rate and provide opportunities to correct misunderstanding from questionnaires and are int ended to verify and validate the results devised from previous literatures and completed questionnaires (Kummar, 2005). Sampling in semi-structured interviews In order to gather the valid and reliable primary qualitative data, the semi-structured interview will be carried out with experienced professionals working in construction cost estimating field. Three purposive samples have been chosen based on contactability and availability from different cities in China, 1 of which were face-to-face, 2 of which were telephone interviews. They come from Development Company, building company and construction consultancy, so that the information can be gathered in different participants in a project and this can provide the chance to examine the views of different needs to quota and quota pricing system in construction activities. 3.2.1.3 Case Study In order to qualitatively support and illustrate the hypotheses devised from literature reviews, case studies research will be carrie d out in this research. As argued by Kummar (2005) that case study is a method used to study a social phenomenon through a thorough analysis of the individual case. Meanwhile, it provides opportunities for intensive analysis of different specific details to generalize a broader theory. Case study of education system A collective case study will be employed to investigate how the education system impact on practice of Quota pricing system through examining three types of textbooks in education system in China. The book named Construction surveying and cost estimation management is published by Tongji University in 2007, which is widely used by a number of universities in the course of quantity surveying and interrelated course in China. In this book, there is a special chapter to introduce the principles of quota pricing system. Furthermore, Construction Quota is chosen from the text books of self-study higher education examination in China. In the course of construction cos t estimation, construction quota system and related knowledge is taught as a basic part for further knowledge study. Construction Cost Estimating and Control is one of fascicules in professional training and examination, which is published in 2009. In the qualification examination of professional cost estimator, being an important part, the principle of quota and quota pricing method occupied the comparative proportion as well. Through the analysis of quota system offered in these books from different fields in education system in China, the fundamental influence of quota pricing system on academic structure to professionals will be explored. Sampling in case study of education system In the case study, three purposive case samples will be chosen. These three cases are chosen from different education field, including general university, self-study higher education examination and profession training. From the analysis of different fields, the results are convictive. 3.3 Ethic Statement All data in this research will be collected and analysed complied with the ethical and professional guidelines of Nottingham Trent University (2009). According to Bryman (2004), to ensure the respondents will uphold during the research process, a statement explaining the purpose of research and use of the data gathered from the questionnaire will be provided before the questions so that informed consent is obtained by each investigator. Meanwhile, additional statement of intent will emphasize the participation is voluntary and the data will be analysed and treated as confidential and anonymity. This confidentiality will avoid and potential harm caused to the respondents. Each of respondents will be provided a final report results (Bryman, 2004). 3.4 Summary of Research Methodology This research will review the relevant previous published literatures as theoretical and empirical basis to determine the facts in practice of quota system over construction pro cedures in China. In order to achieve the research aims, this paper will be combined with structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and case study to examine and establish the reasons that why the Quota Pricing System is persisting over construction procurement in China under the mandatory of National Bills of Quantities procurement method. This dissertation will therefore utilize triangulation methodology, of which quantitative and qualitative data will be involved. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Analysis Of Different Research Methods Finance Essay" essay for you Create order